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Publications

Books, peer-reviewed articles and government reports on project management, cost-benefit analysis, AI and infrastructure economics. Each publication has a short interactive summary with charts drawn from the verified figures, opened with “Explore findings”.

ORCID: 0000-0002-6771-8266 SSRN Author Page

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In progressWorking paper

The Hedonic Price of Ecological Quality: Separating Biodiversity from Greenness in Danish Housing Markets

Leed, A. B.
Working paper · Aarhus University · 2026

A first revealed-preference estimate of how the ecological quality of nearby nature is reflected in property prices, using around 850,000 geocoded Danish home sales matched to the national Biodiversitetskort. Homes near higher-quality nature sell for more, though most of the raw gap reflects who chooses to live near nature. A typical step up in ecological quality, comparing homes within the same neighbourhood, is associated with about 1.6% higher prices, roughly DKK 25,000 to 40,000 for a typical home. A link to the paper will be added when it is released.

Noise, Selection, and the Illusion of Bias paper cover
2026Working paper

Noise, Selection, and the Illusion of Bias: How Unbiased Estimates Can Produce Systematic Cost Overruns

Leed, A. B.
SSRN Working Paper No. 6429358, 2026

Shows that estimation noise combined with project selection based on the benefit-cost ratio can account for roughly 25 to 50% of observed infrastructure cost overruns across most categories, a central reading near a third, even when every estimate is unbiased. This portfolio version of the optimizer's curse is derived in closed form and calibrated to international data across eight project types. A revised version is in preparation. The figures shown here reflect the current draft, which is ahead of the posted SSRN paper.

How to Measure Anything in Project Management book cover
2025Book

How to Measure Anything in Project Management

Hubbard, D. W., Budzier, A. & Leed, A. B.
Wiley, 2025

A practical guide to evidence-based project decisions. Drawing on the world's largest project database, this #1 bestseller in Project Management Software replaces intuition with measurement, covering calibrated estimation, Monte Carlo simulation, reference class forecasting and the expected value of information. Among the findings, qualitative risk matrices can add error of their own while even simple quantitative models tend to outperform unaided expert intuition.

iScience journal cover, Volume 28, April 2025
2025Peer-reviewed

Maintaining Capital Discipline in the Rush to Net-Zero Energy Systems

Greig, C., Techau, M., Leed, A. & Budzier, A.
iScience, 28(4): 112241, 2025

Examines how the urgency of the energy transition can lead to weakened cost controls on capital projects. Using evidence from large-scale energy infrastructure, the paper argues for maintaining rigorous capital discipline even as investment accelerates toward net-zero targets. Across more than 1,100 clean-energy projects, mean capital-cost overruns run 84% above estimate, and 36% for projects completed since 2000.

AI in Action whitepaper cover
2022Government report

AI in Action: How the Hong Kong Development Bureau Built the Project Supervision System

Flyvbjerg, B., Budzier, A., Agard, K. & Leed, A.
Hong Kong Development Bureau (PSGO), 2022, with continued development to 2024

Documents the design and deployment of an AI-powered early warning system that monitors the active projects in Hong Kong's public-works portfolio. The system uses machine learning to detect signals of cost overrun and schedule delay, enabling proactive intervention by the government. The current version predicts cost overruns with 91% accuracy, and 80% of its cost forecasts land within ±10%.

UK Department for Transport report cover
2021Government report

Updating the Evidence Behind the Optimism Bias Uplifts for Transport Appraisals

Budzier, A. & Leed, A.
UK Department for Transport, 2021

Commissioned by the UK Government, this report updates the empirical evidence underlying the optimism bias uplifts used in transport project appraisals. At the Full Business Case stage and 80% confidence, the recommended capital-cost uplift is 60% for rail and 47% for roads. The analysis informed policy guidance that shapes how billions of pounds of public investment are appraised.

2018Working paper

Quantitative Cost and Schedule Risk Analysis of Nuclear Waste Storage

Budzier, A., Flyvbjerg, B., Garavaglia, A. & Leed, A.
SSRN Working Paper No. 3303410, 2018

Applies quantitative risk analysis methods to nuclear waste storage and decommissioning projects. Using reference class forecasting and Monte Carlo simulation, the paper demonstrates how to produce calibrated cost and schedule estimates for highly uncertain mega-projects. At an 80% confidence level the required cost uplift is 202%, far above the official contingencies of 23 to 51%.

Practitioner Articles

APM Project Journal – How to Measure Your Projects More Effectively
2026Practitioner article

How to Measure Your Projects More Effectively

Leed, A.
APM Project Journal, Spring 2026

Five practical tips for getting project measurement right: start with decisions not dashboards, beware the analysis placebo, embrace uncertainty through probability, measure what matters not what is easy, and test your methods. When experts say they are 90% certain, they are often right only 40 to 50% of the time.

Interested in Collaborating?

I'm always open to research collaboration, media enquiries and speaking opportunities.